Publications
14C Dates from Tel Rehov:
Iron-Age Chronology, Pharaohs, and Hebrew Kings
Hendrik J. Bruins, Ben-Gurion University of
the Negev, Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Department Man
in the Desert, Sede Boker Campus, 84990, Israel
Johannes van der Plicht, University of
Groningen, Centre for Isotope Research, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen,
Netherlands
Amihai Mazar, The Hebrew University of
Jerusalem, Institute of Archaeology, Mount Scopus, Jerusalem 91904,
Israel
27 January 2003; accepted 11 March 2003
Stratified radiocarbon dates provide an independent
chronological link between archaeological layers and historical data.
The invasion by Pharaoh Shoshenq I (Shishak) is a key historical
synchronism, ~925 B.C.E., mentioned in both Egyptian inscriptions and
the Hebrew Bible. The list of places raided by Shoshenq, mentioned at
Karnak (Egypt), includes Rehov (Israel). The site yielded a consistent
series of radiocarbon dates from the 12th to 9th century B.C.E. Our
results (i) suggest a revised Iron-Age chronology; (ii) date an
archaeological stratum to Shoshenq's campaign; (iii) indicate the
similarity of "Solomonic" and "Omride" pottery; and (iv) provide
correlation with Greece and Cyprus.
The difficulty in providing secure linkages between
Egyptian history and archaeology in the Levant, particularly in relation
to the Bronze and Iron Ages, as well as in relation to biblical data,
has long been frustrating. Chronology in these periods is largely based
on historical Egyptian data, indirectly linked to archaeological strata
through complex association based on artifacts. Various interpretations
relating to age assignment and historical association may be possible.
The Iron Age chronology in the Near East and Eastern Mediterranean
Region has become a hotly debated issue (1-6). Certain archaeological assemblages in key sites
in Israel-for example, Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer (Fig. 1) were
traditionally assigned to the time of King Solomon (second half of the
10th century B.C.E.). The association of such pottery assemblages with
biblical data relating to the United Monarchy of David and Solomon was
considered reasonably secure, functioning as a ceramic benchmark to
assess the archaeological picture of this period, as well as the
subsequent Divided Monarchies ofIsrael and Judah. However, the discovery
of similar pottery in the destruction layer of Jezreel, a royal citadel
of the Omride Dynasty, which ruled over the northern Kingdom of Israel
in the 9th century B.C.E. (885 to 843 B.C.E.) (77), posed a problem. This discovery led to the
proposal of a low chronology for the Iron Age (2, 5), in which the
boundary between Iron I and Iron IIA is lowered by about 80 years, from
~1000 B.C.E. to ~920 B.C.E. The implication is that archaeological
layers traditionally associated with the United Monarchy of David and
Solomon "have become" too young. Thus an archaeological controversy
arose, in which chronology is pivotal.
 Figure 1. Map showing the location of Tel Rehov and other sites mentioned in the text, as well as the possible route of the military campaign by Pharoah Shoshenq I (arrows). |
Radiocarbon dating was not seriously used for Iron Age
sites of the Near East, because the method initially lacked the required
precision in historical years (8).
As high-precision calibration curves based on dendrochronology (9-13) became available, the need for an
independent chronology in Near Eastern archaeology based on 14C dating was advocated (14). Advances were made (15, 16) and radiocarbon
dates have been obtained for Iron Age sites (17, 18), but
inconsistencies and wide age ranges gave ambiguous results.
Here we report a stratified series of highquality radiocarbon
dates from Tel Rehov, in northern Israel (Fig. 1; table S1), ranging from the 12th to the 9th century
B.C.E. We have used the most accurate procedures afforded by 14C dating: single-year organic samples taken only
from primary contexts, high-precision dating, multiple measurements,
conventional and accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) techniques (19). The calibration precision in
historical years was greatly enhanced by stratified archaeological
wiggle matching (20, 21), because successive layers cannot have the same
position on the calibration curve but must follow each other in
time.
Tel Rehov is located in the Beth-Shean/ Jordan Valley,
some 6 km west of the River Jordan (Fig. 1). This area constituted a
major junction in the Iron Age, providing east-west and north-south
routes of international importance. The tell has a size of 10 hectares,
and is thus one of the largest Iron Age sites in Israel (22). The place name Rehov appears in
various Egyptian New Kingdom texts. Most important, it occurs on the
list of cities con quered by Pharaoh Shoshenq I, the biblical Shishak (I
Kings 14:25-26, II Chronicles 12:3-4). His Asian campaign was recorded
on the southern wall of the temple of Amun at Karnak in Upper Egypt,
where Rehov appears after the term "The Valley" (probably referring to
the Beth-Shean! Jordan Valley) and before the city name Beth-Shean
(23). This sequence fits the local
geography well (Fig. 1).
The excavations reveal that Tel Rehov was a thriving
city during the Iron Age I and IIA cultural periods (22). The city was destroyed and rebuilt several
times, which left a series of occupation strata. Three of the strata
(numbered VI to IV) belong to the Iron Age IIA, containing the same
kinds of artifacts found in other key sites mentioned above in relation
to the Iron Age chronological controversy. Earlier layers (Strata D-6 to
D-4 in excavation area D) contain ceramic assemblages typical for the
Iron Age 1. We present our dating results (tables SI and S2; Figs. 2 and 3), going from young to old
in the stratigraphic sequence (24).
 Figure 2. Stratigraphic sequence of calibrated dates, determined with the OxCal program (26), relevant historical dates and a simulated average 14C age (2795 ± 20 years B.P.) with calibration for an optional historical date (925 B.C.E.) of Shoshenq's campaign in ancient Israel. |
At the end of the Iron Age IIA, half the site was
abandoned after a severe destruction of Stratum IV. A large building of
Stratum IV uncovered in Area C contained rich finds, including many
pottery vessels typical for Iron Age IIA, cultic objects, and a rare
Greek Middle Geometric vessel. Charred cereal grains found on the floor
in thick destruction debris of this building were dated by AMS, because
three measurements were made on subdivided samples. The dating results
were consistent, within 1σ of each other. The weighted average
date [2755 ± 25 years before the 14C
present (yr B.P.)] gives a 1σ calibrated age range of 918 to 892
yr B.C.E. with 25.4% relative probability and another age range of 880
to 836 yr B.C.E. with 42.8% relative probability (Fig. 2). The
calibration curve descends steeply and regularly during the second half
of the 10th century B.C.E. and the first two decades of the 9th century
(Fig. 3). Then the calibration curve goes up around 875 B.C.E. to form a
small plateau that lasts until 845 B.C.E. Hence, there are two principal
options for the calibrated date of Stratum IV. The period 880 to 836
B.C.E. is most likely in probability terms, but 918 to 892 B.C.E. is
also possible. The invasion of the Aramean ruler Ben Hadad I during the
time of King Baasha of Israel (902 to 886 B.C.E.; I Kings 15:20) is a
possible candidate. But other events following the end of the Omride
Dynasty seem more plausible for the destruction of Stratum IV and the
abandonment of the lower city. The Jehu revolt (843 B.C.E.), the
Assyrian invasion of Shalmaneser III (841 B.C.E.), or the Aramean
invasions of Israel during the time of Hazael (between 840 and 830
B.C.E.) all fit the radiocarbon dating results.
Stratum V at Tel Rehov stratigraphically predates
Stratum IV, although the pottery assemblages from these two strata are
almost indistinguishable. Greek Proto-geometric pottery found in this
level is of great importance for establishing correlation with Greek
chronology. The destruction of this city is found in several parts of
the tell, and Stratum V yielded the largest amounts of charred grain.
Three consistent 14C dates from Area B (locus
4218) gave a weighted average of 2786 ± 25 yr B.P. Three different
loci of Area C also yielded consistent dates and weighted averages of
2771 ± 8 yr B.P., 2788 ± 14 yr B.P., and 2776 ± 9 yr
B.P., respectively. The 1σ and 2σ calibrated age ranges (table S1; Fig. 2) of the various loci of
Stratum V all give a distinct highest relative probability for the 10th
century B.C.E., and particularly the period 935 to 898 B.C.E. These
14C dating results match well with dates
suggested by Egyptologists for the reign of Pharaoh Shoshenq I, ~945 to
924 B.C.E. or slightly younger (25), and for the year of his invasion into Israel,
tentatively suggested as 925 B.C.E. (25) or 918 B.C.E. (7) in correlation with biblical texts. Whatever the
merits of the latter options, all possibilities fit well with our
radiocarbon dates. Placing our dating results of Stratum V on the
calibration curve (Fig. 3), also with respect to Strata IV and VI,
leaves no reasonable alternative but the period 940 to 900 calendar
years B.C.E. Therefore, we attribute the destruction of Stratum V at Tel
Rehov to Shoshenq I, as there seems to be no other historical candidate
that would fit the available radiocarbon time window.
 Figure 3. The radiocarbon dating results placed in stratigraphic order on the calibration curve. The vertical scale is in historical years B.C.E. The 1σ B.P. date for each stratum or phase is represented by a rectangle, placed on the calibration curve but conditioned by the stratigraphic order, because most layers cannot overlap in time, but succeed each other. For Stratum V, the date of each of the four loci is represented by its own rectangle. |
We did a computer simulation using the OxCal program
(26) to evaluate which radiocarbon
dates (in years B.P., with a standard deviation of 20 years) and
calibrated age ranges one would obtain if 925 B.C.E. were the date for
the Shoshenq invasion of Canaan. A total of 60 simulations gave
individual radiocarbon dates similar to the ones we obtained for Stratum
V, as well as older and younger dates. The average of the 925 B.C.E.
simulations is 2795 ± 20 yr B.P., which is close to our results
from Stratum V. Indeed, the graphical presentation of the simulated
calibrated date for 925 B.C.E. is nearly the same as our dates for
Stratum V (Fig. 2). Our 14C results would
also allow for a slightly younger date of Shoshenq's campaign within the
10th century B.C.E., because the entire period 940 to 900 B.C.E. is
possible in terms of radiocarbon dating.
Four radiocarbon dates were obtained for Stratum VI.
One conventional date obtained by gas counter on seeds gave a result of
2761 ± 14 yr B.P. (GrN-27366). Two AMS dates of a mixture of seeds
and fine charcoal from the same basket gave older dates, 2805 ± 35
yr B.P. (GrA-21054) and 2800 ± 50 yr B.P. (GrA-21182); a third
measurement yielded a young date of 2755 ± 35 yr B.P. (GrA-21043).
There is one wiggle in the calibration curve from 950 to 980 B.C.E.,
which seems to fit the 14C dating results for
Stratum VI, in relation to the archaeological stratigraphy. The pottery
assemblage of this city belongs to an early phase of the Iron Age IIA,
but it differs only slightly from that of Strata V and IV. It seems that
Stratum VI should be dated to the first half of the 10th century B.C.E.,
and perhaps closer to its middle part, as indicated by 14C dating.
Area D at Tel Rehov is a stratigraphic trench excavated
in the western slope of the lower mound. It shows a series of eight
wellstratified strata, ranging from the end of the Late Bronze Age
(Stratum D-8) until the Iron Age IIA (Phase D-l and D-2). Phase D-2
consists of refuse deposits from nearby Area C Strata V and VI. The only
date we obtained for D-2 (GrN-26112, 2805 ± 15 yr B.P., measured on
olive pits), 10th century B.C.E, fits well chronologically with refuse
from either Stratum V or VI.
Phase D-3 yielded five consistent individual
radiocarbon dates from three different loci, all measured on charred
olive pits found in refuse or storage pits, situated below the
above-mentioned D-2 refuse. The weighted average is 2831 ± 18 yr
B.P., which favors a calibrated age range for the end of the lith
century B.C.E. and the first half of the 10th century B.C.E. Placing the
result in stratigraphic order on the calibration curve would fit the
range of 1010 to 980 B.C.E. (Fig. 3). The only alternative possible
period, 960 to 940 B.C.E., does not fit in terms of stratigraphic wiggle
matching with respect to D-4 and Stratum VI. Moreover, the Late Iron Age
I ceramic assemblage of D-3 is generally accepted to predate the Iron
Age II-A pottery of Stratum VI.
Phases D-4a and D-4b constitute, respectively, a street
surface and parts of two houses. Two consistent dates on olive pits from
Phase D-4a, measured by conventional gas counter (GrN-26121, 2890 ±
30 yr B.P.) and AMS (GrA-18825, 2870 ± 50 yr B.P.), give a weighted
average of 2885 ± 26 yr B.P. The calibrated date gives a wide
possible age range for the 12th and lith century B.C.E. because the
calibration curve in the 11 th century is rather level (plateau),
whereas many wiggles occur between 3000 and 2900 yr B.P. for the period
1250 B.C.E. to 1130 B.C.E. However, putting our 14C dating results in stratigraphic sequence on the
calibration curve favors the period 1050 to 1010 B.C.E. The ceramic
assemblage of phase D-4a is typical Iron Age I-B pottery. Three AMS
dates of seeds trom locus 1845 of Phase D-4b are consistent and give a
weighted average of 2924 ± 22 yr B.P. Though there are four to five
possible calibrated range options in the 2IT period 1254 to 1020
calendar years B.C.E, the period 1090 to 1050 B.C.E. seems to fit best
in stratigraphic sequence on the calibration curve (Fig. 3).
Phase D-6 (upper) consists of occupation debris above a
floor (locus 2836) in which charred olive pits were found. Two
consistent dates, both measured by conventional gas counter (GrN-26118,
2920 ± 30 yr B.P.) and AMS (GrA-18826, 2950 ± 50 yr B.P.),
give a weighted average of 2928 ± 26 yr B.P. The lσ
calibrated range lists five possible periods in between 1209 to 1050
B.C.E. Considering the stratigraphic sequence and the ceramic
assemblage, the period 1130 to 1090 B.C.E. on the calibration curve
seems most likely (Fig. 3). The pottery is typical for the second half
of the 12th century, probably slightly after the end of New Kingdom
Egyptian presence in parts of Canaan, which occurred at some time in the
period 1150 to 1135 B.C.E., during the reigns of Pharaohs Ramesses IV to
VI (23, 25).
In conclusion, the radiocarbon results, in relation to
archaeological, historical, and biblical data, lead us to propose a
modified traditional chronology for the Iron Age in the Levant (table S2). The modification is that the Iron
Age IIA cultural period includes both the 10th and much of the 9th
century B.C.E. (~980 to 835 B.C.E). There is only one known historical
candidate that fits the destruction date of Tel Rehov Stratum V, 940 to
900 B.C.E., based on 12 high-quality 14C
dates: the invasion of Ph araoh Shoshenq I.
Our research negates an important argument of the low
chronology theory, namely, that Iron Age IIA ceramic assemblages should
be confined exclusively to the 9th century B.C.E. The 14C dating results imply that it is difficult to
distinguish between "Solomonic" and "Omride" pottery. The site of
Ta'anach (27), about 8 km
southeast of Megiddo (Fig. 1), is also mentioned on the Karnak list of
places destroyed by Shoshenq. Period II-B pottery at Ta'anach, assigned
to 960 to 918 B.C.E. (27) and to
the 9th century in the low chronology (28), is identical to that found in Tel Rehov Stratum
V. Period II-B ended in a fierce destruction, which can be related to
Shoshenq's campaign in view of our results.
Because Shishak (Shoshenq I) is mentioned as a
contemporary of Solomon in biblical texts, we find it plausible to
retain the linkage of specified archaeological assemblages (Rehov
Stratum V, Ta'anach II-B, Hazor X, Megiddo VB, and perhaps also V A-IVB,
etc.) to the United Hebrew Monarchy. Our results also have implications
for the chronology of Cyprus and Greece because imported pottery trom
both countries was found in Tel Rehov Strata V and IV. It appears that
the traditional chronology of Greece can be maintained, but for Cyprus,
older dates seem appropriate for some pottery groups (29, 30).
Materials and Methods
The dated organic material, charred cereal grains and
olive pits, with one exception of charcoal, was derived from recent
excavations (1997-2000) conducted by Mazar (S1). Short-lived botanical remains were discovered
in each of the excavated strata at Tel Rehov in primary context,
including some refuse pits. This provided a unique opportunity to obrain
a series of stratified high-quality radiocarbon dates for the entire
sequence, suited for stratigraphic archaeological wiggle matching
(S2, S3) on the calibration curve, in order to advance
the establishment of an independent chronology in Near Eastern
archaeology based on 14C dating (S4, S5), S6).
Besides the obvious advantages of short-lived seeds,
sometimes these little grains may slip out of their original
stratiographic context, due to biological activity or processes. The
consistency of the results gives reassurance concerning the position of
most charred seeds as "in situ" regarding their respective stratigraphic
contexts.
All radiocarbon dates were measured at the Radiocarbon
Laboratory of the Center for Isotope Research, University of Groningen
(The Netherlands). The charred organic samples were treated by the
acid/alkali/acid (AAA) method (S7). The purified organic matter of each sample was
converted into CO2. The 14C content of the CO2 of
the larger samples (gram size C) is measured conventionally in gas
counters. The CO2 from small samples (mg size
C) was transformed into solid carbon for measurement by Accelerator Mass
Spectrometry (AMS) (S8).
The conventional method is preferred where possible,
because measurements with the highest precision can be achieved: a
standard deviation (1σ) of 10-15 years for 25 grams of sample. The
(1σ) precision of the AMS measurements is 30-50 year. Triplicate /
duplicate measurements of subdivided samples were used to increase
accuracy and precision (S6).
Moreover, the average value of consistent multiple dates yields a
high-quality date with a smaller standard deviation. This is important
for the calibration from radiocarbon years into calendar years (S9, S10).
References and Notes
4. S. Gitin, A. Malar, E. Stern, Eds.
Mediterranean Peoples in Transition – Thirteenth to Early Tenth
Centuries BCE (Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem, 1998). (back)
7. M. Miller, J. Hayes, A History
of Ancient Israel and Judah (Westminster, Philadelphia, 1986).
(back)
11. 1993 Calibration issue, M.
Stuiver, A. Long, R. S. Kra, J. M. Devine, Eds., Radiocarbon 35
(1993), 35-65. (back)
12. INTCAL 98: Calibration Issue, M.
Stuiver, J. van der Plicht, Eds., Radiocarbon 40 (1998). (back)
15. 'Near East Chronology:
Archaeology and Environment', H. J. Bruins, I. Carmi, E. Boaretto, Eds.,
Radiocarbon 43 (2001). (back)
23. K. A. Kitchen, The Third
Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100 BC) (Aris & Phillips,
Warminster, ed. 2, 1986). (back)
24. Owing to length restrictions, we
are unable to present a more detailed description of each sample in its
stratigraphic context, ceramic assemblages, or a discussion of published
radiocarbon dates. (back)
25. K. A. Kitchen, in The
Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the
Second Millennium B.C. (Österreichischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Vienna, 2000), 39-52. (back)
26. C. Bronk Ramsey,
Radiocarbon 37, 425 (1995). We used OxCal version 3.5 (2000)
with a resolution of 4 and without rounded-off ranges. (back)
31. We are grateful to J. Camp for
supporting the excavations at Tel Rehov. Our thanks to H.-J. Streurman,
A. T. Aerts-Bijma, and S. Wijma for carefully preparing and measuring
the radiocarbon samples. (back)
S7. W.G. Mook, and H.T. Waterbolk,
Handbook for Archaeologists. No. 3. Radiocarbon Dating.
(European Science Foundation, Strasbourg, 1985). (back)
S8. J, van der Plicht, S. Wijma,
A.T. Aerts, M.H. Pertuisot, H.A.J. Meijer, Nuclear Instruments and
Methods B172 (2000), 58-65. (back)
S9. M. Stuiver, J. van der Plicht,
Eds., INTCAL 98: Calibration Issue, Radiocarbon 40(3) (1998).
(back)
S10. C. Bronk Ramsey,
Radiocarbon 37 (2), 425-430 (1995). We used OxCal
version 3.5 (2000) with resolution = 4 and without rounded off ranges.
(back)
Table S1. Radiocarbon dates of Tel
Rehov in relation to the stratigraphy and archaeological context. GrN =
(Groningen) conventional measurement by gas counter; GrA = (Groningen)
AMS measurement. Calibrated dates are presented only for the respective
average dates. (back)
| General Stratum | Area and Local Phase | Locus | Lab No | 14C Date year BP | 1σ Cal Date 1998 Curve (cal BCE) | 2σ Cal Date 1998 Curve (cal BCE) | Charred Organic Material | Ceramic type and context |
| IV | C-1a | 5498 | GrA-21152 GrA-21154 GrA-21267 Average of 3 dates | 2770 ± 50 2730 ± 50 2760 ± 35 2755 ± 25 | 918-892 (25.4%) 880-836 (42.8%) | 970-958 (5.9%) 934-830 (89.5%) | Cereal Grains | Iron Age II-A Last building with cult objects |
| V | B-5 | 4218 | GrA-21034 GrA-21047 GrA-21179 Average of 3 dates | 2760 ± 35 2820 ± 35 2770 ± 50 2786 ± 22 | 973-956 (19.9%) 942-898 (48.3%) | 998-895 (84.0%) 877-842 (11.4%) | Olive Pits | Iron Age II-A |
| V | C-1b | 2422 | GrN-27361 GrN-27362 GrN-27412 Average of 3 dates | 2764 ± 11 2777 ± 13 2785 ± 28 2771 ± 8 | 969-960 (10.7%) 926-896 (57.5%) | 970-958 (12.4%) 933-894 (61.9%) 878-840 (21.1%) | Cereal Grains | Iron Age II-A |
| V | C-1b/a? | 2425 | GrN-26114 GrN-26115 Average of 2 dates | 2775 ± 20 2800 ± 20 2788 ± 14 | 970-959 (20.1%) 934-903 (48.1%) | 999-981 (5.5%) 976-896 (86.6%) 876-858 (3.3%) | Cereal Grains | Iron Age II-A Silo |
| V | C-1b | 2441 | GrN-26116 GrN-26117 GrN-27385 GrN-27386 Average of 4 dates | 2810 ± 20 2775 ± 25 2771 ± 15 2761 ± 15 2776 ± 9 | 969-960 (14.0%) 925-899 (54.2%) | 971-957 (18.1%) 937-895 (64.9%) 877-844 (12.4%) | Cereal Grains | Iron Age II-A Destruction Layer |
| VI | C-2 | 4426 | GrN-27366 GrN-21043 GrN-21054 GrN-21182 Average of 4 dates | 2761 ± 14 2775 ± 35 2805 ± 35 2800 ± 50 2768 ± 12 | 968-961 (6.9%) 924-896 (44.1%) 876-860 (13.1%) 850-844 (4.1%) | 970-958 (10.1%) 934-892 (53.6%) 880-836 (31.7%) | Seeds Seeds & fine charcoal | Iron Age II-A Early |
| V/VI | D-2 | 1802 | GrN-26112 | 2805 ± 15 | 996-989 (7.9%) 974-953 (26.6%) 944-919 (33.6%) | 999-905 (95.4%) | Olive pits | Iron Age II Refuse deposits from Stratum V and VI |
| VII | D-3 | 2862 4815 4830 | GrA-16757 GrA-19033 GrA-21044 GrA-21056 GrA-21183 Average of 5 dates | 2820 ± 50 2835 ± 45 2845 ± 35 2825 ± 35 2820 ± 50 2831 ± 18 | 1002-971 (41.5%) 958-937 (26.7%) | 1040-1031 (1.8%) 1020-918 (93.6%) | Olive pits | Iron Age I/II Transition Pits |
| - | D-4(a) | - | GrN-26121 GrA-18825 Average of 2 dates | 2890 ± 30 2870 ± 50 2885 ± 26 | 1120-1120 (2.7%) 1112-1098 (10.0%) 1085-1060 (17.3%) 1053-1005 (38.2%) | 1190-1178 (2.8%) 1153-1142 (2.0%) 1130-996 (87.0%) 989-975 (2.3%) 954-944 (1.3%) | Olive pits | Iron Age I Street surface |
| - | D-4(b) | - | GrA-21046 GrA-21057 GrA-21184 Average of 3 dates | 2905 ± 35 2945 ± 35 2920 ± 50 2924 ± 22 | 1208-1203 (3.3%) 1189-1179 (6.9%) 1154-1142 (8.0%) 1129-1108 (15.1%) 1102-1050 (35.0%) | 1254-1243 (2.3%) 1212-1198 (6.3%) 1192-1138 (25.7%) 1132-1020 (61.2%) | Seeds | Iron Age I-b House floor |
| - | D-6 upper | - | GrN-26118 GrA-18826 Average of 2 dates | 2920 ± 30 2950 ± 50 2928 ± 26 | 1209-1201 (4.8%) 1190-1178 (7.7%) 1159-1141 (11.1%) 1130-1107 (13.7%) 1102-1050 (30.8%) | 1256-1240 (4.5%) 1213-1020 (90.9%) | Olive pits | Iron Age I Occupation debris above floor |
| - | D-6 lower | - | GrN-26120 GrA-19034 Average of 2 dates | 2880 ± 30 2935 ± 45 2897 ± 25 | 1125-1040 (60.3%) 1032-1020 (7.9%) | 1210-1200 (1.9%) 1191-1176 (4.6%) 1161-1140 (4.7%) 1131-999 (94.2%) | Olive pits | Iron Age I Brick debris layer |
Table S2. The radiocarbon dating
results, following calibration and stratified archaeological wiggle
matching, in relation to historical, biblical, and archaeological data.
Our revised traditional chronology for the Iron Age of the Levant is
compared with the low chronology. All dates are in years BCE. (back)
| Time- scale 1200 1100 1100 1000 1000 900 900 800 800 700 | Historical and biblical background Egyptian 20th Dynasty Judges Saul David Solomon Omri Ahab Jehu | Special events ca 1150-1135 End of the Egyptian presence in the Levant ca 925 Shishak Raid ca 840-830 Assyrian and Aramean invasions 732 Assyrian Conquest of Northern Israel | Our C-14 age ranges (not periods!) of Tel Rehov strata D-6 1130-1090 D-4 1090-1010 D3 1010-980 D-2 995-920 VI 980-940 V 940-900 IV 900-830 III | Our Revised Traditional Chronology Iron Age I-A ca 1200-1140 Iron Age I-B ca 1140-980 Iron Age II-A ca 980-830 Iron Age II-B ca 830-732 | Low Chronology Late Bronze Age (Last Phase) Iron Age I ca 1140-920 Iron Age II-A ca 920-830 Iron Age II-B ca 830-732 |